Prehistoric Q/A: Any Paleo Question and Vs. Fight · 5:46am Jun 5th, 2018
As I work on the schedule for the Jurassic Park marathon, got a lot of dinosaurs on the mind and I have some of the things to be chewing on later. Paleo Profiles, another Biblical Beasts, etc.
But in the meantime, as a hold over, I thought it be nice to have a quick Q/A. Any and all prehistoric species are welcome topics, and yes, I'll even do Vs. questions. Ever wanted to know how I'd weigh in on subjects like-
"Where was the oldest human found?"
"What was the biggest dinosaur?"
"How do we know how old some dinosaurs are?"
"What's the difference between Coleurosaurians and Carnosaurs?"
"What is the biggest land mammal ever known?"
"Who would win in a fight, Triceratops or Allosaurus?"
"What's that dinosaur from _____ movie?"
"What dinosaurs lived in the ocean or swam a lot?"
Got one? Fire away. No limit to how many.
How many dinos were capable of taking down a T-rex?
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We're up to, depending on count and how you lump or split genera and species apart/together, 1,000-1,500 different types of dinosaur. That's a lot. Even just counting the most potentially dangerous, that's a ton. Many of which would be extremely powerful and, in a head on fight or with a surprise, could kill a Tyrannosaurus rex. In my honest opinion, any of the top 4 biggest Theropods could potentially defeat a T.rex with a ton of herbivores capable of doing so as well. So for simple numbers.
Theropods
-Spinosaurus
-Giganotosaurus
-Carcharodontosaurus
-Saurophaganax or Acrocanthosaurus (only in a good ambush)
Herbivores
-Any Ceratopsian (horn face) dinosaur over 6 tons, such a Torosaurus or Triceratops
-Any Armored dinosaur over 5 tons, such as Ankylosaurus
-Any Hadrosaur ("duck bill") dinosaur over 10 tons, such as Lambeosaurus or Shantungosaurus
-Any Sauropod (long neck) dinosaur over 15 tons, such as Brontosaurus or Barosaurus
Now keep in mind this is not cases of one combatant would win 100% of the time, just that I see them as capable of it. In some match ups, I favor the T.rex (so for instance I favor Tyrannosaurus over Saurophaganax 80-20) whereas in others it's the other way around (I favor Shantungosaurus over Tyrannosaurus 70-30).
So here's a kind of random and obscure kind of question, and one I've been wondering about for years. In Beast From 20,000 Fathoms there's that scene where Dr. Elson is in the diving bell, and finds the Rhedosaurus. Just before the dino eats the diving bell Dr. Elson goes on this brief spiel about the Rhedosaurus, just listing off some random scientific sounding stuff about it. I've wondered for awhile just what he was talking about and if any of it was remotely accurate. Even rewatching the scene I can't really hear clearly what he's saying, just sounds like science jargon to my uneducated mind. Thought perhaps someone who's more of an expert such as yourself might shed some light on what the dude was going on about that had him so excited that he felt it was more important to go on a rant about it rather than say, "Oh my word, I do believe this dinosaur is going to eat us, could you please raise the diving bell now?"
Any question?... Hmm how do you think a fight between Tarbosaurus vs. Carcharodontosaurus would go? Which of the five senses do Carnosaurs excel at utilizing, like how Tyrannosaurus has the best vision in the animal kingdom for example?
Assuming we had a way to genetically engineer new dinosaurs here in the modern age, how would they have to be altered to fit into Earth's new climate?
Which dinosaurs did not really walk on their hind legs?
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Due to the Rhedosaurus being a fictional species of dinosaur (no predatory species were quadrupedal), most of it is just rabble. The line "the dorsum is singular, not bilateral" basically means "It has one ridge down its back, not two."
-Actually is supported by evidence as several types of Theropods did have a raised ridge down the back, however it was always singular and not two parallel lines of spines or plates like in Stegosaurus. This is found in Acrocanthosaurus.
images.dinosaurpictures.org/Acrocanthosaurus_by_dibgd-d2xm2xj_dbf3.jpg
The line "Paleolithic survival" however is incorrect. The Paleolithic is an extremely recent age, the human "stone age" if you will, hence why 'lithic' refers to stone tools. Not a dinosaur to be seen there but this was at a time Hollywood thought dinosaurs were wiped out by the ice age.
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I'd favor Carcharodontosaurus in that one, though it's not a clean win. More a 60-40% advantage due to larger size and mass helping tip the balance in its favor as Tarbosaurus didn't have as crushing a bite as its cousin and was a bit smaller. Still, not out of the game though. As for senses, Carnosaurs are sort of the "Jack of all Trades" route, not especially lacking in any areas even if they aren't #1 in any. Their brain shape is very comparable to crocodilians and thus they likely had similar senses. Of them, smell was the most developed, though sight wasn't bad at all. They might had have trouble hearing subtle, higher pitched noises but lower frequency sounds were readily audible.
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They'd fit quite fine mostly. Oxygen levels on average have fluctuated so much some species lived in lower levels than we have today. As warm blooded animals a majority wit fit in nicely to any temperate or tropical zone we have today and cold climate species are hardly rare.
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Many types of dinosaurs count walk bipedally or at least stand up and maybe take a step or two as bipedalism was ancestral to the whole group. The only ones I'd say with confidence couldn't rear up were Ankylosaurids, later and later Ceratopsians like Triceratops (ancestral Ceratopsians were bipeds) and some types of Sauropods like Brachiosaurus due to either extreme mass or having small backlegs.
How Dangerous Would a sauropod (for example: Brachiosaurus and Argentinosaurus) be if they have developed a taste for meat?
Would they still be a "Gentle Giant" or like Massive Bears?
Where did the myth of Dinosaurs having a two brains start? Also what really wiped out the dinosaurs?
Which do you think had the stronger bite force? T.rex or Deinosuchus
Do you believe Troodon were Nocturnal or Diurnal?
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I knew it; you skipped over Spinosaurus. Recent discoveries show he couldn't walk on his hind legs like Jurassic Park made him out to move.
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Simply put, Sauropods are already dangerous. The most dangerous land animal on the planet in my bets are Sauropods. They weren't massive mobile meat sacks for carnivores to slaughter or necessarily gentle Giants without weapons. Many sported enormous think claws, whip-like tails that could shatter bone, and spines. Several even sported body armor and tail clubs like Ankylosaurs. In a head to head brawl between two adults, any Sauropod over 16 tons I'd consider out of any Theropod's league. They were probably most similar to elephants or large bovines in behavior.
If anything making them omnivorous would actually make them less aggressive because predators need to be careful about the fights they pick.
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Latest studies favor Deinosuchus by a reasonable margin. Almost double most recent estimates for T.rex infact. Makes sense given the "giga-gator" having truly massive and robust jaws.
https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/03/120315-crocodiles-bite-force-erickson-science-plos-one-strongest/
Here's a movie-inspired question: I remember in The Valley of Gwangi when the titular beast fights an elephant and kills it.
What mammalian animals (either prehistoric or more modern) could take on and potentially defeat an Allosaurus?
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Not quite. First off it's wrist shows no adaptations for knuckle walking so that be tricky. Additionally, follow up study by others like Palu Sereno and Scott Hartman found the legs were shorter than other Theropods, but not to the extreme degree some suggested. Additionally, the center of gravity was still calculated as being at the hips once and error was cleared up from the initial 2014 study that cried "quadruped". The CoG was still above the hips, meaning the animal balances above the hindlimbs, traits of a biped.
Below is the initial 2014 leg study with the corrected measurements below.
static1.squarespace.com/static/51bf1cd3e4b0a897bf54112b/t/541297bae4b05a9f6b767e9f/1410504637680/?format=1000w
Spiny's still probably a biped.
If Lipleurodon wasn't the largest non-filter-feeder predator in history as WWD would have you believe, what was?
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The largest well supported aquatic super predators are Carcharocles megalodon, Livyatan m., and the modern sperm whale. Each regularly broke 50 feet and with the whales, it's possible some could exceed 70 feet and 80 tons. Livyatan also holds the record for largest non-tusk teeth at over 16 inches.
Even during whaling times, whalers very rarely even tried to target bull sperm whales, which frequently rammed ships, to the point several famous incidents they sunk metal plated boats and smashed harpoon boats to bits.
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Big forward facing eyesockets and a big brain to lead credence to it being nocturnal. However, like felines, I wouldn't be surprised if it came out in broad daylight on occasion.
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Love these ones! Now assuming we're dealing with Allosaurus fragilis, not Saurophaganax maximus which was classified as a type of Allosaurus at one point, there actually are quite a few. Allosaurus fragilis typically weighed in at around 2 tons, some larger and some smaller. With this mass, I'd actually put some modern herbivores like a larger bull African elephant (around 8-10 tons) over the Carnosaur. That means a big tusker like this guy-
repstatic.it/content/nazionale/img/2014/08/06/141639142-2505aff1-937c-4990-b9f1-77ebe1e4e145.jpg
might have tusks over two meters long while being a good meter taller and three to four times heavier than the Allosaurus. Pump him up on musth and the Allosaurus would be wise to pull a tactical retreat. I'd favor most prehistoric elephants such as the Columbian Mammoth (12-15 tons) and Paleoluxodon (below) (16-22 tons) as well.
prehistoric-fauna.com/image/cache/data/size/P.namadicus-size-738x591.jpg
Some prehistoric rhinos like the big, single horned Elasmotherium might weigh over 4-5 tons and probably also could give an Allosaurus some trouble. The biggest and 2nd largest land mammal ever (after Paleoluxodon) Paraceratherium, might have lacked a horn, but it's sheer bulk of up to 20 tons could potentially just crush the Allosaurus with a kick, stomp, ram, or headsmack.
i.redditmedia.com/A98PM7RZUV_2Xzr9jj_eE47Q-usMyRWBuNTJtuOfNoU.jpg?w=628&s=282262a4cada599fae5f568d1a8d57bb
Also can't imagine getting bit by those jaws be pleasant given the huge fangs on the end.
i.pinimg.com/originals/9d/e2/c2/9de2c2a84a3b6346e8df82cf6bcd1bd9.jpg
As for predatory mammals, there is one that might stand a chance. I still favor the Allosaurus, but given the sheer power of this creature's modern, smaller relatives, it can't be discounted. Arctotherium was the largest terrestrial Carnivoran mammal of all time with good estimates. This is a bear that if it stood upright, could look an elephant in the eye and then some, with a maximum height of around 13 feet and roughly four times the mass of a polar bear.
media.wired.com/photos/5932b86d2a990b06268ac5b4/master/w_462,c_limit/arctotherium-reconstruction.jpg
It's very close to the Allosaurus in mass, and while I do think the Allosaurus has a deadlier bite thanks to its extremely serrated teeth, the giant bear's forearms would have been extremely powerful. A modern grizzly bear with less than a 1/6th the mass can break an elk's back and a polar bear can shatter a beluga's skull. Arctotherium may have chiefly been a herbivore and scavenger, but that by no means makes it weaker.
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Debatable source, but it got inflamed by Stegosaurus, which had a widened cavity in its spine near it's hips which we know now was just to house a nerve bundle. But because of mammal-centric models and ideas that evolution worked in 'levels' to constantly get better, as supported by George Cuvier, there was a bit of an idea to reinforce the notion that dinosaurs were lacking hugely in some areas compared to modern mammals, thus mammals are superior. This lead to the idea of "It's brain is so small, it must be so stupid it needs a back-up brain to control it's lower body!". I will not this hypothesis was fought against since day-one but since it leaked into pop culture, it stuck.
As for the extinction, it was truly a big combination of factors. The dinosaurs had gone through swells and declines in diversity before and they were on one of those declines. They weren't dying out by any means, just the number of species lowered and this meant less adaptability and ability to respond to change. Additionally, sea levels were very high, isolating a lot of landmasses. When a massive asteroid hit, as indicated by both abrupt climate shifts and an iridium layer (iridium is a metal extremely rare on Earth but very common in asteroids, the layer was caused by the asteroid's fragments raining back down), it caused an explosion bigger than the entire nuclear stockpile x100. This kicks up billions of tons of dust and ash globally, as well as setting off massive tectonic activity like earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis. The heavy ash from this blocks out the sun and restricts plant growth. Less plants means less herbivores, less herbivores means less carnivores and soon you have total ecosystem collapse or pandemonium.
And this was not a quick event, it took thousands of years and some dinosaurs probably survived the whole thing via reproduction. However, inbreeding and environmental shifts gradually killed off the survivors. We actually have found a few possible dinosaur bones in what may be Paleocene rock right at the start of the Cenozoic, but they are extremely scattered and it's hard to tell if they are legit Paleocene fossils or possibly reworked fossils (older fossils getting eroded out of their rock and resettled in new rock). Another big factor was because sea levels were so high, many continental land bridges were flooded. As a dinosaur in California, you couldn't walk to New York or to Brazil like you can today. So even if you were, say, a South America dinosaur who could survive just fine in North America's new climates, you can't get there because there's no land bridge and hundreds of miles of ocean in the way. You're stuck were you are.
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Now that you've covered how Allo would fare against mammals like these, what about his more swole counterparts like Acro or Giga?
What do you think to the idea of a movie that takes the general idea of films like One Million Years B.C. and When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth, where the setting is a large anachronism stew with Humans living alongside Dinosaurs, but with a modern Hollywood budget, Paleozoic and Cenozoic creatures included, and while the setting is a deliberate mess, the animals themselves are portrayed accurate enough (Pterosaurs with fuzz, Dinosaurs with feathers, Stem-Mammals with fur etc.)?
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Now THIS is the discussion and detail I wanted to start.
You think Spino may have walked along riverbeds the way researchers first thought the sauropods might have?
What would you say was the largest species of anthropoid? Or to be more clear, species in the same family as Humans?
And what would you estimate is the actual size of Leedsicthys?
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The largest Anthroploid (Simians) as well as the largest Hominidae (family humans belong too, almost called "Great Apes") is Gigantopithecus blacki, a giant relative of the orangutan that lived in south-eastern Asia until around 30,000 years ago.
s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/scifindr/articles/image3s/000/002/105/large/gigantopithecus.jpg?1453081223
Was your question asking for specifically relatives of humans not close to other apes?
As for the fish, the largest current estimates, which I think are the most accurate, are 45-52 feet long. So big, but smaller than some of the larger whales.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242329266_Growth_age_and_size_of_the_Jurassic_pachycormid_Leedsichthys_problematicus_Osteichthyes_Actinopterygii
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For the beefer Carcharodontosaurids? List gets much smaller. Only the biggest African Elephant on record stand a chance. All the rhinos except Paraceratherium, its close kin, and a freakishly big Elasmotherium are out, as is the bear. For elephant relation, a Colombian Mammoth have a lot of trouble but could probably fend one of those two off if it was aggressive enough and kept bashing it with its tusks without taking too many hits, killing be hard though. Paleoluxodon probably could still pull it off due to sheer mass and those enormous, spear-like tusks.
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Admittedly specifically referring to relatives not close to other apes.
Other questions I have here are
1. So how would the prehistoric crocodilian species such as Parussasaurus, Deinosuchus, and Sarcosuchus compare to each other? Not neccesarily in a head on fight, but what physical attributes would you say each could outperform the others on?
2. With location and appearance in mind, would you say Sarcosuchus is more closely related to the Gharial or Nile Crocodile?
3. How would you believe Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus interact with each other in their ecosystem? I remember hearing about a Spinosaur fossil with a broken sail that implies they may have fought each other for food or territory.
4. How social do you think Carnosaur species are? If they have similar brains to Crocodiles then it could be that like Crocs, they could very well have hunted together from time to time and may have even occasionally hung out together in one spot like Nile Crocs if I remember correctly.
During the three "periods" of the Mesozoic Era, what were the biggest (confirmed) Marine predators, and how did they compare in size with their terrestrial counterparts? Also, how closely (if at all) were the biggest Marine Reptiles of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods?
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Ah, well for human-exclusive kin, modern Homo sapiens, extinct Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and their immediate ancestor, the "Archaic Homo sapiens", Homo "heidelbergensis" are all pretty much tied for body size. Most human ancestors or predecessors were a good deal smaller than ourselves, with the line not approaching modern heights until Homo erectus and Homo ergaster. "Lucy", the Australopithecus a. would barely be up to your shoulder.
i.ytimg.com/vi/xT8Np0gI1dI/maxresdefault.jpg
1. Purussaurus and Deinosuchus are both reasonably similar in build, sensible given they are both Alligatoridae members, so closer to caimans and true alligators than crocodiles or gharials. They are both very comparable in terms of robustness, with Deinosuchus having larger teeth and Purussaurus having a thicker jaw. Puru and Deino are very much like a hulked-out version of a Black Caiman and American Alligator respectively. Sarcosuchus belonged to a now extinct group of Crocodilians with no living members, having a body type more like a crocodile but with a preportionally longer snout. In terms of mass all three are neck and neck, though Sarcosuchus edges out the gators thanks to a longer skull.
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Large_crocodyliformes.svg/1900px-Large_crocodyliformes.svg.png
2. Not likely, given it's jaw shape only kinda resembles a gharial. It's an extinct group member unique against all modern crocodilians. It did have the bulk to kill big game, though probably couldn't "death roll" due to some of its biomechanics. As such it probably was doing something else to dispatch prey or was eating medium sized animals it could just crunch.
Fun fact, there were actually two true crocodiles, members of the modern Crocodylus genus, who approached these ancient genera in size. Crocodylus bugtiensis and Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni.
prehistoric-wildlife.com/images/species/c/crocodylus-thorbjarnarsoni-size.jpg
valentint.blog.bg/photos/178454/original/Crocodylus_bugtiensis.jpg
3. I'd compare those two to flightess, scaled up versions of a golden eagle and great blue heron. The eagle is an apex terrestrial game killing predator, whereas the heron is a generalist predator who leans more on aquatic prey, but still can kill terrestrial game. And both scavenge if the chance arises of course. But both are extremely deadly, the eagle for its blade-like talons and the heron for its spear-like beak. Either could possibly kill the other and they know it, so they give each other space and largely ignore each other. Sometimes they can cordially rest in the same spot or feed off the same carcass, sometimes one forces the other to back off. I'd image Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus were much the same.
4. I'd say you're on the right track. It is probable they spent most of their time alone to avoid competition and increase their shares of the food, but in cases where an opportunity presents itself, I could see some social coordination and teamplay to bring down ideal game or peacefully cohabiting together for a time.
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As for relation, the three key family of Ichthyosaur, Plesiosaur/Pliosaur, and Mosasaur weren't that close to each other. Ichthyosaurs were kinda in the halfway area between Archosaurs and Lepidosaurs (snakes and lizards), Plesiosaurs and Pliosaurs were closer to turtles, whereas Mosasaurs were legit giant lizards that were very close to snakes and monitors.
Triassic
Shonisaurus was a genus of Ichthyosaur comparable in size to the modern sperm whale with a confirmed length of at least 15 meters and potentially as high as 25 meters. For comparison, the largest Triassic predator, a land-crocodilian by the name Fasolasuchus, maxed out at 10 meters.
pre00.deviantart.net/169c/th/pre/i/2015/204/b/c/shastasaurus_shonisaurus_sikanniensis_by_titanlizard-d92hjw8.jpg
Jurassic
Unless some giant Ichthyosaurs persisted, the largest would probably be the large Plesiosaur relative, Pliosaurus, the largest of which was between 13-16 meters long. The largest well represented terrestrial predator is Saurophaganax, whom maxes out at 12.5 meters long and would be significantly lighter (5 tons to Plio's 16+)
prehistoric-wildlife.com/images/species/p/pliosaurus-size.jpg
Cretaceous
Tentatively, probably Mosasaurus or Tylosaurus, both of whom could breach 50 feet long and roughly 15 tons. The largest terrestrial predator, Spinosaurus approached a similar or slightly longer length, but was several tons lighter.
pre00.deviantart.net/fbea/th/pre/f/2017/037/e/a/saurian_mosasaurus_by_arvalis-day4mnd.jpg
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Cool, thanks for the info. Dr. Elson said something else too, but I could never make out what it is. Its the line right before he says, "But the most astonishing thing about it is-". Actually speaking of that line, what would the most astonishing about the Rhedosaurus be, do you think? I mean, sure its a fake dinosaur, but if you were looking at that thing and were trying to describe it before it ate you, what would you say is the most astonishing thing about its design?
Some questions here again.
1. Looking at this semi-seriously, if it were hypothetically possible. Could we ride the Rex as a battle mount?
2. What were the biggest and smallest birbs to ever exist?
3. What are some interesting tidbits you could tell us about Kronosaurus?
4. Even though the Rhedosaurus is fictional, what type of animal would you classify it from a serious analytical viewpoint?
5. Is Shantungosaurus the largest Hadrosaur on record? If so, how strong do you think it is?
6. What non-Dinosaurian animals both modern and prehistoric of comparable size do you believe can challenge the larger members of the Dromeosaurid family?
Which area has the most diverse fossil findings?
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Hell Creek formation, the Morrison Formation, and Florissant Fossil Beds are some of the best places to check out in the USA given they cover both extremely vibrant ecosystems as well as multiple time periods. The Grand Canyon is also a notable place for having both Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic age fossils due to how deep and long it is so many rock layers are exposed.
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1. It could certainly carry you, though it's neck and back are so broad you'd have to use a very odd saddle. Now as for obeying you?... Eh, probably not. Could possibly tame it juuust enough to sit on give you can do that with crocodilians.
i.imgur.com/yKPeOWo.gif
2. The largest bird by mass was the Elephant Bird, extinct circa 600 years ago at over 800-1,000lbs.
worldatlas.com/upload/41/5c/35/shutterstock-elephant-bird.jpg
The smallest bird known is the extant bee hummingbird, which has a body of just one inch long and weighs only 2.6 grams.
factzoo.com/sites/all/img/birds/mellisuga/smallest-hummingbird-perched-hand.jpg
The largest flying bird was Argentavis, similar to a giant condor-
newdinosaurs.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/727_argentavis_nobu_tamura.jpg
and Pelagornis, a giant albatross-like bird with a nightmare fuel face.
mundografico.emol.cl/2010/09/16/15834_4580_15314059.jpg
3. Given fossils of large squid and deepwater animals where Kronosaurus has been found, it is possible it was a deep diving animal and capable of both going after deep sea prey and shallow water game. It's large, cone shaped teeth are also one of the most easily identified fossils in its range, suggesting either they went through a ton of teeth or were quite successful.
4. Given the splayed limbs, number of digits with claws, back ridge, and skull shape, I'd say it's probably either a very big and weird looking predatory Iguana or Varanid monitor lizard. However the external ears and canine teeth could tempt me to call it an extremely derived Therapsid, a mammal-like reptile.
5. Shantungosaurus is both the largest Hadrosaurid known as well as probably the largest non-Sauropod dinosaur (or possible any land animal) known. At up to 22 tons, it would be insanely powerful. I'm talking could pancake a car or most Super Theropods levels of strong.
6. Large felines (Smilodon populator, Panthera atrox and Ice Age & modern lions and tigers), Bear-Dogs (Amphicyon, and Proceratosaurid Tyrannosauroids (Sinotyrannus) are some of the most well designed carnivores to ever live and could be a serious challenge to the raptors. In terms of brute force, some bears could also prove to be a formidable opponent, especially the likes of Arctodus or Polar Bears.
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Last question I got for this Q&A.
If Crowley the Compy were to access the legendary transformation of Super Compsognathus said to occur once every thousand years, what would his power level be?
Two unrelated questions:
1) With full knowledge that the answer will be conditional (targets young animals, targets old,sick and/or badly injured animals, etc.), what predators existed in the same time and place as T.Rex, and likely preyed upon it?
2) I make no secret of the fact that I enjoy watching documentaries focusing upon prehistoric animals. My favorates include Walking with Dinosaurs (along with the special episode Allosaurus and the sequel Walking with Beasts and prequel Walking with Monsters), the spin off Chased by Dinosaurs, it's spin-off Prehistoric Park, and the much later (and largely unrelated) Planet Dinosaur. I know these shows are all dated by now, but are there any points of notable accuracy and inaccuracy within them that truly stand out (beyond of course the lack of feathers in the earliest work; again, it is rather dated by now), and can you recommend any programs of similar entertainment value but with better educational value?
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Too high.
(Depicted, Crowley and Snoke's human forms)
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I take it Snoke is OPM?
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He DID kill the Red Death with a (claw-first) punch.
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On the subject of the RPG, real talk here.
What was the secret herbivore we never found on our playthrough?
Would you be willing to to questions on creatures BEFORE the era of the dinosaur, like anomalocarus?
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Si, any paleontology question.
How did the large Late-Cretaceous herbivorous theropods (Deinocheirus, Therizinosaurus, and Gigantoraptor) get so big? Could any of them have held their own against their meat-eating cousins?
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Probably the more common influences that pressure other herbivores to get big. Lot's of food, lack of large numbers of huge herbivores to compete with, and medium to small predators which would encourage an adaptation for growth so one is better protected against attack. The likes of Gigantoraptor or Therizinosaurus most certainly could hold their own against attackers and would probably be considered too dangerous to regularly consider prey in many cases. Many of them sported massive claws and muscular arms I can't imagine it be pleasant to get slashed or rended by even if the claws were mostly for foraging. There actually have been herbivorous an omnivorous Theropods before, it just seemed a lucked out this time around due to the conditions being right and are not being as much competition.
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Depending on where you guys went, either Eotriceratops or the hybrid Stegoceratops.
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What? Really?! How did it came to be?
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1. The Hell Creek formation from where Tyrannosaurus rex is known from actually has very few large carnivores aside from T.rex. Smaller predators like certain crocodilians would most certainly kill a young or juvenile tyrannosaur, but as for dinosaurs, their are only three possible candidates. Anzu, a very large North American Oviraptorid might have probably been chiefly herbivore, but it was possibly an omnivore and most certainly would and would kill very young T.rex given their size.
pre00.deviantart.net/077f/th/pre/i/2016/194/1/7/anzu_by_chrismasna-da9w3ga.jpg
Dakotaraptor was a polar bear sized species of raptor that in either packs or alone could pose a suitable threat to a very weakened or young Tyrannosaurus.
pre00.deviantart.net/298c/th/pre/i/2015/303/d/8/saurian_dakotaraptor_by_arvalis-d9ewtr5.jpg
There is also the possibility there might have been more than one Tyrannosaurid in Hell Creek, as there have been teeth found similar to Albertosaurus. Now it likely wasn't Albertosaurus itself and there also is the possibility the teeth were merely from a young Tyrannosaurus, but if it is from another species is likely was from a more medium-sized tyrannosaur. Still even if it is smaller than the adult Tyrannosaurus, it could still pose a very sizable threat to young or very weakened Tyrannosaurus, akin to how leopards are to lions. Kill them before they get big enough to be a threat.
img00.deviantart.net/989d/i/2014/358/3/3/gorgon_the_gorgosaurus_by_fredthedinosaurman-d8b2kp4.jpg pngimg.com/uploads/question_mark/question_mark_PNG78.png
Working on part 2.
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Same way the Ulti did. Stegoceratops would have been the final boss if another few choices were made. As for Eotriceratops, it was an unlisted species you could have bumped into after you locked in the Ulti as the final boss. It was another potential summon for the final battle if you guys didn't meet Snoke.