)The Egghead's Guide to Writing: Lesson Two: Commas · 9:41pm Feb 8th, 2013
Welcome to the second installment in the "Egghead's Guide to..." series! In the previous installment we covered how to properly punctuate dialogue in stories. While that is one of the areas that's most commonly messed up in a story, today's topic is definitely a much more difficult one: commas. Commas are the most versitile piece of punctuation in the English language, taking on a huge variety of roles--I would argue too many roles. One of the books that I used to help me write this, the Webster's Guide to Punctuation, lists 44 different rules about how to use commas! Well, something has to be done about that.
In my article about punctuating dialogue I managed to condense all the rules about punctuating dialogue down to ten simple, easy to understand rules. I am trying to do something similar here, but things are a bit more difficult this time; this time some knowledge about the different grammatical structures present in English is required. So, while I will have to throw around phrases like "correlative conjunctions" in this part, I'll do my best to clearly explain what each of these terms mean. Also, there are a number of rules that have very specific contexts and uses, such as referencing works; I only included those rules that you might need to use in writing a narrative work, and left out some of the more technical uses.
I've divided this work into three parts. The first part is a basic list of the rules for comma use. I tried to make every rule simple to understand, but some technical terms were required. The second part is an in-depth explanation of what each rule means, supported with examples of the rules in action. This makes up the bulk of the material, and I highly recommend you read it. The final section is just a list of definitions for he technical terms used in this article. Each of these is also defined the first time that they're used in part two, but this section might be handy if you don't want to search the rest of the document for one definition.
Thanks for taking the time to improve your own writing; it's impossible to be perfect, but it's still a goal worth striving for.
Rules after the break!
The Rules
If you just want to see the rules, I've listed them here. Scroll down to the next section to see an explanation of what each rule means, plus several examples of each rule being applied.
1) Use a comma when joining main clauses with a conjunction, unless the clauses are short.
2a) Use commas to set-off non-restrictive elements that modify a noun (such as dependent phrases and appositives).
2b) Use a comma to set-off an adverbial clause or phrase that introduces a main clause, unless it's immediately followed by the main verb.
3) Use commas to set off parenthetical elements, asides, transitional elements, introductory elements, words in direct address, and mild interjections. Transitional elements don't always need commas if they're in the middle of a sentence and the meaning remains clear without them.
4) Use commas to set-off contrasting expressions. If correlative conjunctions are being used to create the contrast, use commas if long main clauses are being joined, else, omit the commas.
5) If multiple contrasting modifiers or prepositions immediately preceed a noun, and one of them is introduced by an adverb or conjunction, the second can be set off by two (a, b, c), one (a, b c), or no commas (a b c).
6) Use commas to separate objects or phrases in a list. If the phrases are long and themselves contain commas, then semicolons are used to separate the items instead. The comma between the last two items is optional.
7a) Use a comma to introduce dialogue and quotes (see previous article).
7b) If a quote is short or the written approximation of a sound, the comma can be omited.
7c) Use a comma to introduce directly stated questions, whether in quotation marks or not.
7d) If a quote would end in a period, but it's not yet the end of the container sentence, replace the period with a comma.
(See The Egghead's Guide to Punctuating Dialogue for more details.)
8) A comma can be used to replace omitted words in a parallel construction. Ocasionally a comma can replace the word "that."
9) Use a comma to separate repeated words if a slight pause is intended, or if it improves clarity (can make things look worse, consider on a case-by-case basis).
10) If a noun has several modifiers (i.e.: adjectives) in front of it, separate them with a comma if you can put an "and" between the modifiers without changing the meaning.
11) When normal sentence order is inverted (predicate first), a comma often preceeds the subject and verb. It can be omitted if the sentence remains clear.
12) If the comma is to fall in the same place as a question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicolon, or dash, then omit the comma.
Joining Main Clauses
The first function that commas have is to join two main clauses together. A main, or independant, clause is one that can stand on its own as a complete sentence. In other words, a simple sentence. The following are examples of main clauses:
Twilight read her book.
Applejack bucked the trees.
Each of these is a single clause, and each contain all the information needed to form a grammatically complete sentence on their own. A compound sentence contains at least two independent main clauses, which can be joined by several different methods. The following is a compound sentence:
Twilight read her books, while Applejack bucked the trees.
Notice how this sentence contains two main clauses, that is, it could be broken up into two complete and separate sentences. In this case the main clauses are joined by "while," which is a coordinating conjunction. A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins two or more items of equal importance, the big three being "and," "but," and "or."
So, that brings us to rule number one:
1) Use commas when joining main clauses with a coordinating conjunction. If the clauses are short, you can omit the comma. Or, for short, related clauses, you can simply join them with a comma, without the conjunction.
Twilight laid on the couch and read her books, but Rainbow Dash simply made a fort out of them.
Twilight reads books but Rarity reads magazines.
Twilight reads books, Rarity reads magazines.
Setting-off Modifying Clauses
The second important purpose of commas is to "set-off" material in a sentence. What I mean is that commas are used to keep one part of a sentence separate from the rest; if the element is at the begining or the end of the sentence, a single comma will separate it from the rest of the sentence, if it's in the middle, two will be needed to close it in from both sides.
A modifying clause is a clause that gives some additional information about some other element in the sentence. Take, for instance, the following:
Twilight, who had just gotten out of the shower, stared at Rainbow Dash in surprise.
In the above sentence, "who had just gotten out of the shower" is a type of modifying clause. It gives us more information about Twilight, namely, that she had just gotten out of the shower. Another thing to notice is that if this clause were removed, the sentence would still make sense:
Twilight stared at Rainbow Dash in surprise.
This means it's non-restrictive. Modifiers can either be non-restrictive, or restrictive. A non-restrictive modifier doesn't give any information that's necessary to the sentence; it could be removed without changing the sentence's meaning. A restrictive modifier, on the other hoof, does give information that changes the meaning of the sentence, by narrowing the meaning of the element that it's modifying. Consider the following:
Twilight shelved all of the books that started with the letter "A."
In this sentence, "that started with the letter 'A'" narrows down which books we're talking about: only the books that start with the letter "A" are being shelved by Twilight. Presumably, any books that don't start with the letter "A" are being left for later. If we omitted that clause, the meaning would be different:
Twilight shelved all of the books.
Now Twilight is shelving all of the books, not just the ones that start with the letter "A." Or, if we rewrote it as a non-restrictive clause, the meaning would again change:
Twilight shelved all of the books, which started with the letter "A."
Now we're saying that not only did Twilight shelve all of the books, but that all of the books also start with the letter "A." A small change, but certainly a different meaning. Notice that the restrictive clause is not set-off with commas, because it's a necessary part of the sentence, while the non-restrictive clause is set off with commas, because it's just a bit of extra information that the sentence could go without.
Something else to note is that the restrictive clause is introduced with "that," while the non-restrictive clause is introduced with "which." This isn't a hard-and-fast rule anymore, but it is a good idea to stick to it in your writing. The strictest Grammar-Nazis will insist on it, and it is traditional. That being said, these days the two are used pretty well interchangeably, and most people won't notice if you slip up.
There is of course an exception to what we've learnt so far. An adverbial clause or phrase is a group of words that modifies the verb in a sentence. If an adverbial clause or phrase introduces a main clause, then it's set off by a comma, unless it comes directly before the main noun. Check out the following examples:
Inside the schoolhouse, Cheerilee sighed and marked another paper with an "F."
From outside came the sound of foals playing.
In the first sentence, "inside the schoolhouse" describes where Cheerilee is. Since it introduces the sentence, it gets a comma after it. In the second sentence, "from outside" describes where the sound came from, but in this case it's directly before the main verb, "came," so it doesn't get a comma.
Now we can accurately state our second set of rules:
2a) Use commas to set-off non-restrictive elements that modify a noun (such as dependent phrases and appositives).
2b) Use a comma to set-off an adverbial clause or phrase that introduces a main clause, unless it's immediately followed by the main verb.
Setting-off Asides and Parenthetical Elements
Again, we're going to focus on using commas to set-off an element in a sentence. In the previous set of rules, we talked about modifiers; in this set of rules, we'll talk about parenthetical elements, asides, and other related ideas.
A parenthetical element interrupts a sentence to provide some extra information. An aside is a literary device in which a character directly addresses the audience. The following are some examples:
Twilight was dumbstruck, to say the least.
"To say the least" is a parenthetical element. A simple test to see if something is a parenthetical element is to try putting it in parentheses:
Twilight was dumbstruck (to say the least).
It should be obvious how parenthetical statements got their name. It should also be obvious that you can use other punctuation for parenthetical statements besides commas. In addition to parentheses, you can also use em-dashes if you want to draw more attention to the element being set-off:
Twilight was dumbstruck--to say the least.
The following is an example of a character aside:
"The thing is, if you can believe me, that I'm afraid of heights," said Dash.
Related to parenthetical elements are introductory elements. These are words or phrases that, well, introduce a clause. For example, "for example" would be an introductory element, and so it's followed by a comma. Sometimes an introductory phrase is preceded by other punctuation if it falls in the middle of a sentence, but it still gets a comma afterwards:
Rarity frantically searched the room, looking for any incriminating evidence--specifically, any photos or letters.
Occasionally, even Applejack enjoyed a trip to the spa.
Nearly indistinguishable from introductory elements are transitional elements. Again, it's easy to guess what these are: words or phrases that transition from one part of a sentence to another. Generally, these elements are set-off with commas, though sometimes the commas can be omitted if it's in the middle of a sentence:
Twilight, on the other hoof, was brimming with excitement.
Fluttershy was in fact scared stiff.
Keep in mind that if the transitional element joins two main clauses, those clauses need to be joined properly. The following is incorrect:
Twilight appeared calm, however, she felt close to a mental breakdown on the inside.
"However" comes directly between two main clauses, that is, two clauses that could be complete sentences by themselves. Joining two main clauses like this is called comma splice, and is a big no-no. Remember, a comma should accompany a coordinating conjunction if it's going to be used to join main clauses. The correct way to write this sentence is to use a semicolon:
Twilight appeared calm; however, she felt close to a mental breakdown on the inside.
Any time that you use "however" in the middle of a sentence, it's almost certain to be preceeded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Be careful.
Another element of English that follows these rules is words said in direct address. This means words that are said directly to someone, be it a character or the reader.
"Hey Twilight, where are you going?"
"The fact is, my faithful student, that neither I nor my sister can remember where we hid the Elements."
The final item to look at in this section are mild exclamations and interjections. An interjection is a word like "hey," "ouch," or "yay."
"Hey, where are you going?"
"Ouch, that hurt."
I said mild interjections, because there are other ways of punctuating interjections that create a more forceful effect. For instance, Rainbow Dash is pretty loud, so I think she's more likely to say the following:
"Hey! Where are you going?"
Finally we can sum up with our third rule:
3) Use commas to set off parenthetical elements, asides, transitional elements, introductory elements, words in direct address, and mild interjections. Transitional elements don't always need commas if they're in the middle of a sentence and the meaning remains clear without them.
Setting-off Contrasting Expressions
We've finally arrived at the final section that has to do with "setting-off" parts of a sentence! Contrasting expressions are, of course, expressions that work off of each other, reinforcing each other's meaning by providing a contrary example. Contrasting elements in a sentence are often separated with a comma:
Twilight studied, she did not simply read.
Generally, long clauses get separated by a comma, while short phrases do not:
Fluttershy silently cared for her critters, she never turned them away.
The less said the better.
If two elements are contrasted by using correlative conjunctions, a comma usually isn't used. Correlative conjunctions are words that work in pairs to join two parts of a sentence that have equal weight. For instance, "neither...nor" is one pair of correlative conjunctions:
Rarity neither liked nor hated her meal, she just didn't care for it.
But if the correlative conjunctions are joining main clauses, they're usually separated by a comma (not only...but):
Fluttershy not only was afraid of dragons, but she was terrified of them!
From this we can establish a rule:
4) Use commas to set-off contrasting expressions. If correlative conjunctions are being used to create the contrast, use commas if long main clauses are being joined; else, omit the commas.
There is another way that contrasting expressions can be used in a sentence. Two (or more) contrasting modifiers can be used to describe a noun. If these modifiers come immediately before the noun they modify, and one of them is introduced by a conjunction or adverb, then they can be separated with two, one, or no commas.
The Cutie Mark Crusaders quickly built an impressive, if fairly shaky, ramp for Scootaloo.
The Cutie Mark Crusaders quickly built an impressive, if fairly shaky ramp for Scootaloo.
The Cutie Mark Crusaders quickly built an impressive if fairly shaky ramp for Scootaloo.
Now we can formulate our final (and unfortunately complicated) rule for this section:
5) If multiple contrasting modifiers or prepositions immediately precede a noun, and one of them is introduced by an adverb or conjunction, the second can be set off by two (a, b, c), one (a, b c), or no commas (a b c).
Separating Items in a List
This is probably the only use for commas that I remember actually being taught in school. When you have a list of three or more phrases or objects, all joined by the same conjugation, it's inefficient to say:
Scootaloo and Sweetie Belle and Applebloom went down to the lake.
Instead, we drop all but the last conjugation, and then separate all of the items in the list with commas:
Scootaloo, Sweetie Belle, and Applebloom went down to the lake.
That last comma is called the serial comma, or the Oxford comma. Both the Oxford Style Manual and the Chicago Manual of Style recommend using it, while the Webster's Punctuation Guide does not make a prescription either way, but merely notes that there's about a 50/50 split between use and omission. Some people like it, others don't; it's up to you to decide whether or not to use it, because arguments can be made for both ways. When I was in the USA, I was taught to use it. When I came to Canada, I was taught to not use it. Personally, I almost always use the Oxford comma, unless things would be clearer without it.
If the items in the list are long, and themselves contain commas, then separating them with more commas would be confusing. Instead, semicolons are used as a sort of "super comma":
They spent the summer playing; waiting for Scootaloo, who was often busy watching Rainbow Dash; and generally going around town getting into trouble.
That's all that we need to know to define our sixth rule:
6) Use commas to separate objects or phrases in a list. If the phrases are long and themselves contain commas, then semicolons are used to separate the items instead. The comma between the last two words is optional.
Dialogue and Quotes
I already covered all of the punctuation regarding dialogue in my previous installment (The Egghead's Guide to Punctuating Dialogue), so I'm not going to cover it again. Instead, here are the basic rules:
7a) Use a comma to introduce dialogue and quotes (see previous article).
7b) If a quote is short or the written approximation of a sound, the comma can be omited.
7c) Use a comma to introduce directly stated questions, whether in quotation marks or not.
7d) If a quote would end in a period, but it's not yet the end of the container sentence, replace the period with a comma.
Replacing Omitted Words
Though we might not think of it in this way, commas can be used to replace words in a sentence. Consider the following sentence:
Rarity had spent all day dressing in an elaborate gown; Twilight Sparkle had spent all day putting on a matching dress.
This is called a parallel construction, because the first half of the sentence is a copy of the structure of the first. Because it is a copy, we can get away with saying the following instead:
Rarity had spent all day dressing in an elaborate gown; Twilight, a matching dress.
We can see that "had spent all day putting on" is neatly dropped from the sentence and replaced by a comma, without losing any of its clarity. The reader is able to see that this is a parallel construction, and realizes that Twilight had also spent all day putting on her dress. If the sentence is short, a comma isn't necessary:
Rainbow Dash yelled at Rarity and Rarity at Dash.
Another case where a comma can replace a word is when it comes to the word "that":
Twilight was so tired that she fell asleep at her desk.
Twilight was so tired, she fell asleep at her desk.
That's all we need to formulate our eighth set of rules:
8a) A comma can be used to replace omited words in a parallel construction. If the sentence is short, the comma can be omited.
8b) A comma can sometimes be used to replace the word "that."
Separating Repeated Words
Sometimes a sentence contains the same word twice in a row. This can be confusing, or just sound wrong, but it can be hard to rewrite a sentence to avoid this. The Oxford Style Manual suggests placing a comma between the repeated words, though I find that this often makes things sound strange. The Chicago Manual of Style makes the same recommendation, but adds that the comma only needs to be used if a slight pause is intended. I would recommend considering each case individually, and deciding what looks right to you:
When Twilight gave her, her hat back, Rarity was quite happy.
Rarity had had too many chocolates last night.
9) Use a comma to separate repeated words if a slight pause is intended, or if it improves clarity (can make things look worse, consider on a case-by-case basis).
Separating Multiple Modifiers that Affect the Same Element
Often when writing, the writer wants to describe something with more than one attribute at once. For instance, Sweetie Belle is cute and little:
...the cute, little filly, also known as Sweetie Belle.
In that sentence fragment, both "cute" and "little" modify the word "filly" (which is also modified by the clause "also known as Sweetie Belle"). When combining modifiers this way, there are a couple of rules regarding punctuation. When it comes to commas, Websters lists several complicated rules about when, and when not to use a comma; Oxford kindly gives us a simplified rule to follow:
10) For multiple modifiers that immediately preceed the word that they modify, separate them with a comma if the word "and" can be placed between them without changing the sentence's meaning.
For instance, in that last fragment, we could also write:
...the cute and little filly, also known as Sweetie Belle.
Just be careful to not put that comma in if two modifiers cannot be separated by the word "and" without changing the meaning. Another test you can try is to change the order of the modifiers; if you can, then put a comma in; if you can't, leave it out.
Sweetie Belle hugged her own special cape to her body.
Sweetie Belle hugged her own and special cape to her body.
Sweetie Belle hugged her special own cape to her body.
As you can see, the first sentence sounds find. The second and third sentences, however, just sound wrong. And so, we do not place a comma between "own" and "special."
Separating the Subject and Verb when Sentence Order is Reversed
One of the amazing things about language is how the same idea can be communicated in so many different ways. For instance, even a simple sentence, like this:
Rarity had been unable to imagine that her dresses would ever be received so positively.
can be rearranged to make things more interesting. If we reverse the order of the sentence, we get:
That her dresses would ever be received so positively, Rarity had been unable to imagine.
It's the same sentence, just with the beginning of the sentence transposed to the end. When doing this, a comma is usually inserted to keep the parts of the sentence separate, though it can be omitted for shorter sentences if the meaning remains clear:
Twilight's planning was all for naught.
All for naught was Twilight's planning.
11) When normal sentence order is inverted (predicate first), a comma often preceeds the subject and verb. It can be omitted if the sentence remains clear without it.
Commas and Other Punctuation
This rule doesn't tell you where to put commas, but how they interact with other punctuation. Luckily, the rule is simple. With (INSERT PUNCTUATION HERE), put the comma in. If the comma is to fall in the same place as a question mark, exclamation point, colon, semicol, or dash, then the comma is omited to make room for the other punctuation. And obviously, if two different rules both tell you to put a comma in the same place, just put one comma there. Commas excel at taking on two roles at once.
12) If a comma is to fall in the same place as a question mark, exclamation point, colon, dash, or semicolon, then the comma is dropped.
Congratulations! If you've made it this far, give yourself a pat on the back. If you follow these rules, 99% of your troubles with commas should go away. For those occasions where you think a more technical rule might apply, I recommend getting a major style manual (I use both the Oxford and Chicago Style Manuals), or a similar reference book. Check used book stores, especially those on college campuses, to find good deals; I paid only $15 for each of my style manuals. Another option is to get a book like Webster's Punctuation Guide, which is great if you only need a reference for punctuation, and is a cheap reference book to add to your collection; I paid $4 new for mine. Finally, there are many great online resources that are only a Google search away. I found www.chompchomp.com to be useful, and the Grammar Girl blog is another resource worth following (and worth following on Facebook).
Definitions
Here's a list of the technical terms used in this article. For the most part, I've explained what they mean as I used them in the above text. You don't need to know what most of this is to use commas properly, but it can't hurt to know either!
Clause: The smallest grammatical unit that can express a complete proposition. Usually contains a subject and predicate.
Phrase: A group of words that act as a single logical unit where syntax is concerned. A phrase is smaller than a clause.
Independent (Main) Clause: A clause that can stand on its own, a simple sentence.
Subordinate (Dependent) Clause: A clause that modifies an independent clause, and cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence
Modifying Clause/Phrase: A type of subordinate clause/phrase that modifies some other element in the sentence.
Simple Sentence: a sentence that contains a single main clause, and nothing else.
Compound Sentence: a sentence that contains two or more main clauses.
Restrictive Element: an element that forms an essential part of a sentence. Removing a restrictive element would either change a sentence's meaning, or make it ungrammatical, or both.
Non-Restrictive Element: an element that provides some non-essential information for a sentence. Removing a non-restrictive element will not change the meaning of the sentence.
Adverbial Clause/Phrase: A type of subordinate clause/phrase that functions as an adverb, that is, it modifies a verb.
Appositive: A grammatical construct where two elements, usually nouns, are placed side by side, so that one modifies the other. Elements are said to be in apposition to each other. Using a noun like an adverb.
Participle: is either past or present, and makes two of the five forms a verb can have. A participle is either part of a multi-part verb, or can function as an adjective or noun.
Participle phrase: a phrase that begins with a participle (past or present), and contains objects and/or modifiers. A participle phrase's function is to modify a noun.
Coordinating Conjunctions: conjunctions that link elements that have equal weight in a sentence. "And," "but," and "or" are the big three in English.
Correlative Conjunctions: conjunctions that work in pairs to join phrases that have equal weight in a sentence. There are six pairs in English: either...or, not only... but, neither...nor, both...and, whether...or, just as...so.
Parenthetical Element: an element that interrupts a sentence and provides extra, non-essential information.
Aside: a literary device in which a character directly addresses the audience.
Comma Splice: joining two main clauses with a comma when a semicolon should be used. The resulting sentence is called a run-on sentence.
Interjection: a word used to convey emotion, an exclamation. Hey, ouch, yay, oops, etc.
Modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that changes or adds to the meaning of another element in a sentence. Can take the form of an adverb, adjective, appositive, or a number of other forms.
Transitional Elements: an element that connects two things together, to segue from one into the next.
Introductory Elements: an element that introduces something. It prepares the reader for the rest of a sentence, or sets the mood.
Sources:
Webster's Punctuation Guide (Federal Street Press, Merriam-Webster, 2006)
Oxford Style Manual (Oxford University Press, 2003)
The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th Edition (The University of Chicago Press, 2003)
www.chompchomp.com
This is very good, and spot on. Could you perhaps do paragraphs next (length, when to start one, etc.)?
887252 Thanks for the praise! I hadn't planned, or even considered, paragraphs as a topic, but I could give it a whirl. It might be difficult, as the "rules" for paragraphs are much more flexible than other writing rules, but I suppose I could go on a hunt for all of the different recommendations for paragraphs, and then try to combine them into one document. Of course, my writing schedule is very, very irregular, so I wouldn't expect that anytime soon.
Again, thanks for reading.
It would be great if you did. A lot of writers have no idea when to hit that Enter key. The results are these neverending walls of text that unfurl like scrolls. Do you work for an editorial, or a paper?
890407 Haha, actually, not even close. I dropped out of engineering after two years of university, and now I work in a factory that makes windows. It's a glamorous life. I may go back to school eventually, but for now I'm just making some money and continuing to try to figure out what I want to do with my life (currently I'm thinking teaching, but there are some reasons that that would be a bad idea).
Okay, you've convinced me. I'll give paragraphs a shot. But like I said, I write only very irregularly, so I wouldn't expect it anytime soon. I've got a bunch of other projects that are already taking up what little free time I get these days.
Thank you so very much! This is by far, incredible help to my Achilles heel!
1045892 Glad to hear it! I'm also chuckling to think that my comment about atheism brought someone to my blog. I really need to release that next Egghead's Guide soon...
1045915 You can meet people in the strangest places. A Starbucks, a bookstore or while walking in the corner of the street as you avoid the police?...Hotel room, lock up, a half way house. All of these are non-specific occurrences.
1045964 Oh, absolutely. I was just chuckling with a friend online, because: "Atheism Saves! (From bad grammar. In a very indirect way.)"
We had just been discussing atheism, and I just found out that one of my younger brothers is now atheist. Good times.
1045967 That is very funny because I just had a very long discussion about religion in a friends blog. It started with this. Prepare to laugh.
i.chzbgr.com/maxW500/6767175168/h78F67888/
here is a link
1046031 Hah, I laughed. I'm going to ask to end this conversation at this point though, at least in the comments here. I don't want to accidentally create a space where non-atheists don't feel welcome. Feel free to PM me to continue talking if you want.